Action Potentials In Squid Axon

Action Potentials In Squid Axon In 1952, Hodgkin and Huxley published a series of four papers in the Journal of Physiology (London) reporting their experiments to investigate the underlying events of the action potential. In their final paper, they derived a series of equations that describe the relationship between sodium conductance (gNa+), potassium conductance (gK+) and the membrane potential in a squid axon following electrical stimulation. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded the Nobel Prize for this work. In this practical, you will use a computer program based on the Hodgkin and Huxley equations to show what is happening to the membrane potential, gNa+ and gK+ during and after electrical stimulation. An example of the output from the program is illustrated in figure 1. It can be seen that the electrical stimulation depolarises the membrane. Once a depolarisation of 30mV has occurred, the conductance to sodium ions increases rapidly and the membrane potential rises to +20mV. The rise in gK+ is slower in onset and lasts for longer than the increase in gNa+. The fall in gNa+ and the associated rise in gK+ returns the membrane potential towards the resting value. Figure 1: Simulation of changes in membrane potential, Na+ and K+ conductances following the application of a single electrical stimulus of 50  Ã‚ ­A/cm2 for 1  ms. The peak height, amplitude, latency and threshold of the action potential are shown. Methods and Results Run the Squid Giant Axon simulation from the Start menu, HHX. Experiments using a single electrical stimulus In the first series of experiments, you will use a single electrical stimulus to initiate an action potential. Run a simulation with the following parameters: Stimulus 1 Amplitude ( Ã‚ ­A/cm2) Stimulus 1 Duration (ms) Delay (ms) Stimulus 2 Amplitude ( Ã‚ ­A/cm2) Stimulus 2 Duration (ms) 50 1 0 0 0 A trace similar to figure 1 will be obtained. From this trace, you can measure the peak height, amplitude, latency and threshold of the action potential: Peak Height (mV) Amplitude (mV) Latency (ms) Threshold Voltage (mV) +19 109 0.46 -66 Q1 and 2. Investigate the effects of varying stimulus amplitude and duration by running all the simulations shown in the matrix below in Table 1: Enter a X in the Table 1 matrix for experiments that produce an action potential, and record the peak height, amplitude, latency and threshold of any action potentials in Table 2 overleaf. For experiments that fail to elicit an action potential, enter a O in the matrix below, and record a value of  ¥ (infinity) for the latency and - for the other parameters in the table overleaf. Table 1. Success/failure matrix Stimulus Strength ( Ã‚ ­A/cm2) Stimulus Duration (ms) 0.1 0.5 1 2 5 50 O X X X X 20 O X X X X 10 O O X X X 7 O O X X X 5 O O O X X 2 O O O O O Table 2: Action potential characteristics Stimulus Response Strength ( Ã‚ ­A/cm2) Duration (ms) Peak Height (mV) Amplitude (mV) Latency (ms) Threshold Voltage (mV) 2 0.1  ¥ 0.5  ¥ 1  ¥ 2  ¥ 5  ¥ 5 0.1  ¥ 0.5  ¥ 1  ¥ 2 14 104 2.89 -61 5 15 105 2.74 -59 7 0.1  ¥ 0.5  ¥ 1 12 102 4.38 -57 2 15 105 2.16 -58 5 16 106 2.16 -57 10 0.1  ¥ 0.5  ¥ 1 15 105 2.01 -61 2 16 106 1.62 -64 5 16 106 1.62 -64 20 0.1  ¥ 0.5 15 105 1.58 -64 1 16 106 1.02 -63 2 17 107 0.97 -66 5 17 107 1.04 -61 50 0.1  ¥ 0.5 17 107 0.59 -61 1 19 109 0.54 -60 2 19 109 0.52 -62 5 19 109 0.57 -58 Q3. Plot two graphs to show the relationship between: (i) Stimulus strength and latency and (ii) Stimulus duration and latency. How these graphs should be plotted is not immediately obvious, and information on how to complete this task will not be explicitly given! The optimal solution to the problem is for you to find, but the following points are provided for guidance: It is not legitimate to plot infinity on graphs It is not appropriate to extrapolate beyond data points It is not legitimate to plot average latencies. The graphs must be plotted so that every value of latency (except  ¥) is represented. Use the blank sheet on the proforma, there is no need to use graph paper. Graph 1 : Stimulus strength and latency Remember you need to distinguish different stim durations in this gr Graph 2: Stimulus Duration and Latency Make sure you distinguish different strengths as well These can be plotted accurately using excel for your submitted report. Experiments with dual stimuli Q4. Run a simulation with the following parameters to demonstrate the absolute refractory period: Simulation Stimulus 1 Amplitude ( Ã‚ ­A/cm2) Stimulus 1 Duration (ms) Delay (ms) Stimulus 2 Amplitude ( Ã‚ ­A/cm2) Stimulus 2 Duration (ms) A 50 0.5 4 50 0.5 B 50 0.5 4 100 0.5 Briefly describe the responses obtained in simulations A and B in the space below: In A the first and second stimulus is equal. The first stimulus causes an action potential whilst the second stimulus does not. The delay is only 4ms. The membrane is at the absolute refractory period when the second stimulus is sent. Therefore an action potential cannot be produced. The first stimulus for A causes the gK value to change from -0.36 to 6.0. The gNa, 0.01, does not increase for the second stimulus and the peak reached is -92mV for the second stimulus and the threshold is -52mV. In B the second stimulus is larger than the first one but the delay remains the same at 4ms. The increase of the stimulus does not cause an action potential. This suggests it must be in the absolute refractory period because a larger stimulus should be able to generate an action potential if it is in the relative refractory period. The value of gK changes from -0.36 to -5.87. The peak was -83mV Q5. Repeat the simulations, but with a longer delay between stimuli: Simulation Stimulus 1 Amplitude ( Ã‚ ­A/cm2) Stimulus 1 Duration (ms) Delay (ms) Stimulus 2 Amplitude ( Ã‚ ­A/cm2) Stimulus 2 Duration (ms) C 50 0.5 7 50 0.5 D 50 0.5 7 100 0.5 Compare and contrast the responses obtained in simulations C and D with those of A and B. Stimulation C and D has a longer delay between the first and second stimulus than stimulation A and B. Stimulations C has a lower second stimulus than D but the same as A. Likewise for Simulation A which has a lower second stimulus than B. Stimulation B and D have got the same amplitude for the second stimulus. The second stimulus, like A, for simulation C did not generate an action potential. Whilst with simulation D, unlike B, an action potential was generated. This is because in the absolute refractory period it is not possible for an action potential to be generated hence why simulation B did not produce an action potential. The delay in stimulation C and D is longer therefore the membrane is in the relative refractory period. This is suggested by the action potential produced in D. The extra delay in D enables more inactivation gates to open generating an action potential. The larger amplitude in D caused the membrane to reach threshold. Discussion Answer the questions below in the spaces provided. This will provide the basis of your report discussion Q6. Briefly justify why a latency of  ¥ was recorded if an action potential was not produced. Latency is the time from the start of the stimulus to threshold. If no action potential is produced then it is not ever possible for it to reach threshold, -59mV, therefore it has to be labelled as infinity because no matter how long you wait you will never reach threshold. Q7. What evidence from your results suggests that action potentials are threshold phenomena? Only the experiments which reached threshold value produced an action potential, refer to table one. For example when the strength of the stimulus is 2mA/cm2 no action potential was produced but the membrane potential did change however it did not reach threshold. When the strength of the stimulus was increased the, for example to 5 mA/cm2, and the duration of the stimulus as increased to 2ms then an action potential was reached. This is because the membrane must depolarise to the threshold level therefore generating an action potential with the same amplitude. This is the all or nothing principle. Q8. Comment briefly on the amplitude of the action potentials generated in these experiments. In all the experiments, table 2, which an action potential was generated, the amplitude was always similar even though the stimulus strength and duration had changed. This is part of the all or nothing principle. The amplitude was always around 106mV showing that action potentials are not graded. The frequency of the action potential is determined by the intensity of the stimulus. The frequency of action potential is caused during the relative refractory period. Graded potentials can be larger and last longer than action potentials. Therefore during the relative refractory period if the graded potential is stronger than the threshold at resting then it will produce another action potential. If the graded potential last longer than the relative refractory period an action potential will also be generated. Both these factor effect the frequency of action potentials. Q9. From Graph 1, describe the effect of increasing stimulus strength on the latency of the action potential. The graph shows that the strength of the stimulus increases as the latency decreases. For example, when the stimulus strength is 5mA/cm2 and has duration of 2ms the latency is 2.89ms. When the stimulus strength is increased to 50mA/cm2 for the same duration of 2ms the latency decreased to 0.52ms. This shows that the latency has decreased by 2.37ms. Latency is the time from the start of the stimulus to the threshold. Therefore as the strength of the stimulus increases, the time for an action potential to be generated decreases. Q10. From Graph 2, describe the effect of increasing stimulus duration on the latency of the action potential. The graph shows a larger effect with the lower stimulus strength. For example if the stimulus strength is 50mA/cm2 and the duration is 0.5 the latency is 0.59ms and if the duration is 5ms the latency is 0.57. However, if the stimulus strength is 10mA/cm2 and the duration is 1ms the latency is 2.01ms and if the duration increases to 3ms the latency is 1.62ms. Latency is the time from the start of the stimulus to the threshold. Therefore as the duration of the stimulus increases, the time for an action potential to be generated decreases. Sodium permeability increase in membrane Number of sodium channel open increaseQ11. Draw a simple flow diagram to illustrate the positive feedback cycle that results in the rapid depolarizing phase of the action potential. Activation gates open Membrane depolarises Stimulus causing to reach threshold Positive feedback Charge of cell increases causing depolarisation Influx of sodium into cell increase Q12. What event at the ion channel level terminates the above cycle? 1ms after the activation gate open the inactivation gate closes. This is a delay response of the depolarisation. The channel is now incapable of opening until it reaches near resting potential; this is when the inactivation gate opens. Therefore the sodium channels closes and sodium ions cant enter the cell. Also the opening of the potassium channels helps terminates this cycle. Q13. What physiological mechanism is responsible for the absolute refractory period? Absolute refractory period is during the depolarisation and most of the repolarisation phase. At this point the sodium channels inactivation gates are closed and the activation gates are open. Therefore the channel is closed and incapable of opening so an action potential cannot be generated by another stimulus in this period. Q14. Explain your observations to simulations C and D in the Methods and Results section. Stimulations C have a lower second stimulus than D. The second stimulus, for C did not generate an action potential but simulation D did. The delay in stimulation C and D is long therefore the membrane is in the relative refractory period. This is suggested by the action potential produced in D because the larger stimulus amplitude. The extra delay in D, compared to B, enables more inactivation gates to open allowing. Also the larger stimulus allows another action potential to be generated. Q15. Briefly summarise two effects that refractory periods impose on the behaviour of neurones (N.B. restatement of the definitions of refractory periods is not what is asked here) There are two types of refractory period absolute and relative. During the absolute refractory period no action potential can be produced. In the relative an action potential can only be produced depending on the strength of the stimulus. Therefore there is a minimum delay required before a second action potential can be generated. Also it controls the frequency of the action potential generated. This period also helps ensure action potential can only move in one direction. Questions to answer after the practical. Q 16 . Most Local anaesthetics are Sodium channel blockers. Describe how these compounds work, the side-effects and what their main clinical uses are. ( max 300 words). Local anaesthetics are weak bases which are used for loss of pain and muscle power so that a particular area of the body becomes numb. When sodium channel blockers, like lidocaine, enter the body it will be equilibrium with the tissue fluid. The anaesthetic will be in its ionised and non-ionised form. The non-ionised form will be able to pass through. It will be become partially ionised and cant leave, ion trapping. The ionised form will bind to the sodium channel. This will prevent sodium ions from entering the cell and therefore it cannot be depolarised. As a result it does not reach threshold and an action potential is not generated. Consequently the nerve cells cant signal to the brain so pain cant be felt or muscle cant be moved. (Tuckley, 1994). There are many different local anaesthetic available with the side effects differing for each drug and. The general side-effects can be, for example, numbness, sickness, lower blood pressure, light headedness and drowsiness. Not all of these are felt by the patient. (Joint Formulary Committee (2010). The anaesthetic can be administered in by several methods, for example, a dentist will use an injection to the mouth. The effect of the anaesthetics will only be felt by the area in which it is injected in. Dentist will use local anaesthetic so that their patient will have loss of pain only in their mouth. Therefore the patient will not be able to feel any pain whilst the dentist carries out the procedure. It is also used for some eye surgery and minor skin surgery. (Tuckley, 1994). Referencing Tuckley, J, M. (1994).The pharmacology of local anaesthetic agents, Pharmacology, 4, 7. Joint Formulary Committee (2010). British National Formulary. (59th ed.). London: Pharmaceutical Press. Q17. Will these compounds work if they dont block all the Na channels ? Why ? (Use your experimental data to help answer this question) During the relative refractory period some channels are open allowing a second action potential to be generated. For example for stimulation D an action potential was produced for the second stimulus because the cell was in its relative refractory period. However for stimulation C an action potential was not produced for the second stimulus, even though the delay was the same. However the second stimulus was larger for D than C. Therefore if the compound does not block all the sodium channels then an action potential may be generated depending on the number of sodium channels blocked and the strength of the stimulus because the concept is very similar to the relative refractory period as some of the channels are not be open but in this case some channels are blocked. In both cases, relative refractory period and local anaesthetic, some channels allow sodium ions to enter the cell. As a result the compound will not work.

International Foundation Year Macroeconomics Essay

Question 2a) Explain the meaning of the term ‘inflation’. Along with the development of society more and more problems are brought to our attention, one of which is that ‘inflation’. Nevertheless, with the advance of the human civilization, the living standard increases gradually so the price index and Retail Price Index (RPI) rise gradually as well. Deep down, ‘inflation’ means a persistent increase in all money prices over a period of time which is generally considered to bring costs to society is the form of material, political and psychological costs. Also, the increase must be sustained at some rate before there is inflation and when the price level increases steadily over time. ‘Inflation’ that is to say, it is decrease in the purchasing power and all money prices to the same extent. In economic, inflation is measured as a percentage change in the PRI over a given period of time, for example, if the RPI increases from 100 to 200 in a year, then inflation is said to have increased by 20% that year. In the UK, the Retail Prices Index is most commonly used measure of inflation. Because RPI is measure the cost of living index, it can reflex the money price level such as through the changes in the prices of goods in the shops by households. From the figure 1 illustrate, which show the inflation from 1.9 per cent in 2001 to 3.2 per cent in 2003. Obviously, the inflation rate in UK has increased 1.3 per cent from 2001 to 2003 under the RPI. Nevertheless, in the USA, the Consumer Prices Index (CPI) is usually used to measure of inflation. In addition, GDP deflator can measure the average level of prices as well. Definitely, inflation is either great or slight fluctuation in each year. In economic, creeping inflation and hyperinflation are represent inflation as well. Actually, hyperinflation similarly as inflation but the meaning is quiet difference. Hyperinflation means extremely rapid inflation and the price increase so fast that money largely loses its convenience as a medium of exchange. However, creeping inflation is at moderate rates but persevering over long period. Annual Inflation Rates in UK – 12 month % change Figure 1: Source: Office for National Statistics To avoid inflation and low inflation, this is a Macroeconomic Policy’s objective for a long time. This policy tries to affect the overall performance of the economy. In fact, people have an aversion to inflation. Due to inflation would cause costs of inflation and a number of influences, for instance, redistributions effects, uncertainty possible harming for long-term investment reduces the welfare of people, inflation tax, Balance of Payment, unemployment, damage a country’s competitiveness and create menu costs. Inflation indeed is a positive rate of growth of the general level and it is closely related to the unemployment. Question 2b) Distinguish between demand-pull and cost-push inflation. In economics, demand-pull and cost-push inflation are completely difference. Moreover, they are played a principal role in each nation economic as well. Demand-pull inflation is contrasted with cost-push inflation. Demand-pull inflation means the price increase is transmitted from one sector to another but cost-push inflation means the wage increase is transmitted from one sector to another. Actually, demand-pull inflation describes how inflation starts and cost-push inflation describes why inflation once begun is so difficult to stop. Fist of all, demand-pull inflation is also call demand inflation. It exist is due to excess demand. It means that the resources are not completely sufficient the different regions and sectors of the economy. Demand inflation means the higher aggregate level of activity, the large proportion of areas and industries which experience excess demand for goods and labors of various sorts. Generally, we can know that increase in aggregate demand will cause higher prices and it bring to the society of cost inflation as well. However, cost-push inflation is reverse of demand-pull inflation. Cost inflation is due to increase the factor input cost such as imported goods and raw materials so that cause to raise the prices or wage rates round the economy. Basically, the costs increase would cause the manufacturer to raise prices, soon afterwards, increases in prices cause workers to demand higher wages as well. So the cumulative effect of all these processes cause of passed on in higher prices to consumers and the cost-push inflation is extremely difficult to stop finally. Question 2c) Suggest how a government might tackle inflation. In economics, there are four ways of dealing with inflation. Fist, government can adopt tough incomes policies to keep inflation under control. Second, government can through institutional and constitutional reform to tackle inflation like as fiscal and monetary policies. Third, government can adopt indexing deal with inflation as well. One of the suggestion might tackle inflation is incomes policies. The aim of incomes policy is the attempt to influence wages and other incomes directly. The methods included jawboning, wage-price guideposts, wage-price controls and tax-based incomes policy. Generally, jawboning means the government uses verbal admonitions against those who want to raise the prices of their products. For example, the supermarket in UK cannot increase the prices for all of goods under the government use verbal admonitions against. In addition, wage-price guideposts can restrain the inflation similarly, the government may set up standards for permissible wage and price increase for the private sector to follow. For example, the government may intentionally reduce the wage increase for civil servants so that encourage other employers to control wage increase as well. It can curb inflation efficiently. Moreover, the government can use tax-based incomes policy such as allow the private sector lower taxes for who follow the guideposts and rise taxes for those who violate them. Furthermore, the government may use wage-price controls or freezes may lead to non-price competition. Basically, the government use of wage and price controls can keep prices and wages below their equilibrium levels. From the above, there are a number of goods suggestions for tackle inflation in income policies for the government. On the other hand, the government may change laws and institutions to make it hard for inflation to emerge. Actually, this way takes a long run view because it is not to concern with the temporary costs of first getting inflation down. Nevertheless, the objective is control how to keep inflation down. So the government can through controlling the Central Bank to pass a law permanently restricting the rate of nominal money growth to. Obviously, once the Central Bank going to rise in interest rates, the aggregate demand going to down naturally. After that, the inflation rate can be controlled finally. In addition, unemployment get a closely relationship with inflation, government can adopt the fiscal and monetary policies to curb inflation at the cost of higher unemployment. As we know, once the country have a higher inflation rate so that lower unemployment rate will be accompanied. Conversely, once the country have higher unemployment rate, the lower inflation will be emerged. But this trade-off focuses attention on aggregate demand and disregards aggregate supply. From figure 2c, which express the price level decrease from P1 to P2 due to the Central Bank increase in interest rates, there is evidence that once increase in interest rates would cause to decrease the aggregate demand as well. To put it more simply, there is also indication that rise in interest rates may exert a downward pressure on prices. Figure 2c: A rise in the rate of interest effect. Third, the government can adopt indexing to tackle inflation. Whereas indexation might automatically adjusts nominal contracts for the effects of inflation, any unanticipated inflation and inflation effect can be tackled. For instance, wage rates, pensions, interest payments on bonds, income taxes and many other things can be indexed in this way. Indeed, the purpose of indexing is to reduce the social cost of inflation. However, everything has a good side and a bad side, and indexing is no exception. Some economists worry about that people would diminish the confidence combating inflation even all prices and terms in contracts will be adjusted according to the price index. Historically, indexation has already been introduced in countries that have had to live with inflation rates of 30 or 40 per cent for years. Finally, there are many ways might tackle inflation for government. Income policies, institutional and constitutional reform with fiscal and monetary policies and indexing are the process to tackle inflation efficiently.

Alexander Ii- a True Reformist

Ebba Henningsson2/09/2010 History Why and with what success did Alexander II impose so many reforms? Alexander II (1818-1881) has on several occasions been referred to as â€Å"Alexander the Liberator† due to the emancipation of the serfs, which was one of the many reforms he imposed during his reign as Tsar of Russia. The emancipation, along with the reform of the military, the installation of a judicial system, an educational reform, combined with his other â€Å"smaller† reforms, are all reforms which created a more democratic Russia; liberal to a further extent, if you will. Alexander II was however the head of an autocracy in which he had absolute power which leads one to ponder as to what his incentives for these reforms were and how successful he was in imposing these? Alexander was the successor of his father Nicholas I who passed away during the Crimean war, and it can be argued that Russia’s defeat in this war, which was fought in Russia herself, is one of the main reasons for many of Alexander’s reforms. This defeat was a hard one for Russia who had been one of the leading military powers in the previous century as well as the personal loss it presented for Alexander. These defeats may very well have been the reason for the military reform, one problem that the Russian army had was the age of the average soldier who would be considerably older than those of the western powers. Alexander changed this by reducing the years of service a soldier faced from 25 years to 6. Conversely, a soldier who had served these 25 years returned as a free man. This meant former serfs, who constituted most of the army, would return younger with full military training creating two social classes on the country side, resulting in more peasant revolts. In order to prevent this Alexander found that he would have to remove the order that made them into free men, however to do this he would have to present some other enticement or solution to keep the army conscription rate up. Alexander’s solution to this became the, most probably, reason for the reform of the constitution of serfdom; the emancipation. This meant that all serfs would become free for a period of two years with their own land, something that had not occurred before where serfdom had been much like slavery. Introducing the emancipation meant that Alexander could carry out his military reform whilst keeping the peasants under control. The land that the peasants now got was that previously owned by the nobility and to compensate the latter the peasants had to pay redemption dues to the state which would then be given to the nobility. Alexander relied heavily on the nobility to keep his rule intact in even the country side and therefore it was important for him that these remained loyal and at good peace with him and his reform scheme. However with all these new free citizens some sort of order system had to be presented. The zemstvo seemed to be Alexander’s solution for this, which along with the new legal body of Russia assembled Alexander’s judicial reform. These new bodies created a lot of question about Alexander’s goals with the reformation as a whole as this was creating a much more liberal society for the common Russian. To mayhap calm the nobility Alexander said â€Å"The existing order of serfdom cannot remain unchanged. It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it will begin to abolish itself from below†. This quote has moved to become quite important when judging whether Alexander wanted to move towards a democracy or keep his autocracy intact. However another reform which, too, brought Russia further towards a democratic liberal state, was the education reform. A reason for this reform could be to educate the people of Russia seeing as the literacy rate was very low in the country side, additionally to , perhaps, integrate Russia more into Europe and the other western states society. New foreign school books were introduced along with more open universities where both women and men were allowed. This educational reform could have been inspired by Alexander’s possible wish to industrialize Russia. The emancipation of the serfs would also have helped improved that industrialization, seeing as the serfs would now be able to chose to do something other than what the nobility had ordered them to do previously. This industrialisation could have been desired due to the fact that Russia was falling behind the other European states economically. Additionally one of the major problems that had caused Russia to lose the Crimean war had been the malfunctioning railway system along with the deficiency of arms. It is often easier to draw conclusions in retrospect but when judging how successful something was there are several different aspects that ought to be considered, the emancipation of the serfs was indeed successful in its immediate goal, to free the serfs. However with the redemption dues and the shortage of land the everyday life of a serf did not change very much and in fact their economical situation decreased, hence this reformation was not good long term for neither the serfs nor for Alexander who now had the ill wishes of the serfs against him. The military reform was nonetheless very successful. Alexander managed to reduce the amount of time a soldier spent in the army, additionally he created a reserve army which was ready to step in if needed. This resulted in a much stronger and younger army, so in his military reform Alexander was very flourishing. Alexander’s judicial reform was also very thriving, both as a short term and a long term development. Short term it provided the Russians with a judicial system that was independent from the government and therefore incorrupt, furthermore the zemtsvo kept control in the country side and kept Alexander’s orders intact. This reform was therefore both beneficial for both Alexander and his Tsardome as well as for the common population of Russia who got a just law system. The educational restructuring is hard to judge as a matter of success. Even though the conditions of the students and the universities significantly improved it was not advantageous for Alexander himself. As he allowed the students to access outside information they learnt about other governmental systems which eventually, introvertably lead to his death. Hence, in itself the reform was successful however its consequences were, most likely, not those wished for by Alexander. If Alexander wished to reform Russia’s economy and industrialise her one could argue he was not very successful in doing so. The industrialisation never thoroughly commenced during Alexander’s reign and the now freed serfs kept at the new land they had gotten from the nobility. So this aspect of his overall reformation was not very triumphant either. All things considered, Alexander the second was a great reformer who managed to impose several different reforms in a large country without creating a sever debacle which would have harmed the already weak Russia. Several of his reforms were not only successful short term but also long term. Most of the reforms seem to have been brought forward due to the Crimean war, and the realisation that the Russian state was down falling. However seeing as it is unbeknownst what his objectives with these reforms were it is hard to state whether he was successful or not, he did manage to change Russia for a more liberal democratic state but he brought his own demise upon himself. Considering the reforms in themselves he was very successful in imposing them however their consequences were not favourable for himself, as well as the peasant population of Russia.

History of Serial Killer Profiling - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1054 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/07/03 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Serial Killer Essay Did you like this example? Throughout history, profiling criminal defendants has been a controversial topic since profiling has been around. Experts on both sides of the spectrum have been commenting on the issue at hand: whether profiling works. But, learning the history of profiling gives a clearer picture of how reliable and unique this method is compared to other time periods. Throughout this paper, you will see profiling being used throughout history starting with Jack the Ripper and ending when the FBI took profiling to a whole new level and how profiling compares to the topics we are discussing in this course. The first example of profiling came from the Jack the Ripper case back in 1888. Jack the Ripper was an infamous serial killer who raped, killed, and mutilated five women in England. He is notorious still because he was the first documented serial killer in existence. Still his identity is unknown but a profile was made when he was killing to help authorities catch him. (Stevens, Evens 20). According to a surgeon, named Thomas Bond, who worked with the London police created a profile claiming Jack the Ripper was, thought was a middle-aged man, leading a solitary life, and had knowledge of medicine because he knew anatomy of people. (Evens, Stevens 34). Also, Bond mentioned, a sexual nature of the murders coupled with elements of rage. (Evens, Stevens 35). He looked at crime scene photos of the latest mutilated murder victim and post mortem notes from the coroner to put together this profile. (Evens, Stevens 45). How the victim was murdered is definitely important for your profile beca use that shows the killers emotions, knowledge, and sets a pattern for you to look for. Using this method in a time period where police were not really efficient in investigative methods is impressive. In this particular example, the profile did not work. Jack the Ripper was never caught, and to this day, no one has scientific proof of Jack the Rippers identity. Another example is George Metesky, the New York Bomber. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "History of Serial Killer Profiling" essay for you Create order The elusive bomber that swept New York in the 50s setting over 32 homemade explosives around the city injuring fifteen. (Unmasking the Mad Bomber, 2017). After a stretch period of time he started writing ominous notes to the local newspapers. Therefore, the police hired a psychologist to try to get inside the criminal mind. This psychologist they hired was named James Brussel. He hypothesized that the bomber could possibly have a mental illness when he was studying the behaviors of the bomber. Specifically, he thought, [Bomber] was a textbook paranoid schizophrenic, he later explained, may believe other people are controlling them or plotting against them (Unmasking the Mad Bomber 2017). This is just the first part of the puzzle of the bomber. By using this illness, he pieced together different characteristics of this bomber starting from paranoia, being a lone wolf, him feeling superior to everyone else which would leave him unable to hold down a job (2017). Eventually he put togeth er a profile about this bomber which helped authorities identify and capture the bomber. The profile included: unmarried, self-educated, foreign, older, and paranoid (Criminal Profiling: The Reality Behind the Myth, 2004). His name was George Maetesky and the seventeen-year manhunt ended. Dr. Brussels was a pioneer for connecting psychology and criminal investigation by using crime scene photos and behavioral patterns to profile to identify criminals. By showing the Jack the Ripper case and the bomber case, I have shown that profiling has been appearing in pieces of history since before we documented it. Twenty years after the bomber case, the FBI incorporated profiling in their investigative service. Two FBI agents named Howard Teten and Robert Ressler used profiling to recapture the infamous serial killer Ted Bundy. But, Teten was always interested with mixing psychology methods and criminal methods together. He even convinced the FBI to teach these blended methods to upcoming different police academies throughout the country. One police academy in particular had students use his techniques to catch their suspect. With all the popularity growing around this method, he partnered with FBI special agent Patrick Mullany, who has a masters degree in psychology. These two used their expertise to profile and solve cases. According to the FBI page, Teten would outline the facts of a case, and Mullany would show how aspects of the criminals personality were revealed in the crime scene. (Serial Killers: Part 2: The Birth of Behavioral Analysis in the FBI 2013). They were given money from all of their research efforts and helped created VICAP. The first project manager Pierce Brooks is a retired police officer who thought developing a system that would connect cases with similar weapons being used, type of trauma, crime scene specifics, vehicle descriptions, and other characteristics from all over the country (VICAP: Fighting Violent Crime for 25 Years, 2010). It is designed to use keywords given from you to find cases meeting that criteria. So, if you are looking for a suspect that cuts a W in the victims forehead, VICAP will look for other cases like this. Because their teachings became massively popular, Teten and Mullany brought in more people to work with them to start the beginning of the BAU. (Serio, 5:20). Today, the FBI and other police departments use profiling as another weapon in identifying and capturing dangerous criminals all around the country. The facts of profiling are accurate in a class like this because the story of profiling shows the evolution in the police force and how they think. In particular Module one is about the history of homicide and the police. Back in the 1880s, police never thought about using a technique like this. The profile that would narrow the search of Jack the Ripper was done from a doctor instead of the police force. The police were never efficient in investigating killers to be exact. In the Victorian era, the police were never respected. The citizens thought that they were above crime so they lived under the impression that they were better than crime. The crime statistics at that time were distorted related to citizens not reporting theft to the cops. (Crimes and the Victorians, 2011). Another reason the facts are related to the course is the profiling itself. No other technique comes close to this method throughout time. In this course, we learned how homicides were conducted and why given t he certain time period being studied.

Timeline of Reconstruction

Reconstruction was a time of rebuilding the the United States after the tumultuous years of the Civil War. It lasted from the end of Civil War in 1865 to the Compromise of 1877 when Rutherford B. Hayes was given the presidency  in exchange for removing federal troops from Southern states.  Following are key events that occurred during this era including events that were occurring in other parts of the United States. 1865 Congress passed the Thirteenth Amendment which abolished slavery in the United States.  Robert E. Lee surrendered his Confederate forces at Appomattox Courthouse.  Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth while attending a play at Fords Theater.  Andrew Johnson succeeded Lincoln to the presidency.  Johnson began implementing a restoration plan based loosely on Lincolns ideas to help reintegrate the South. He issues pardons to most Confederates who are willing to take an oath of loyalty.  The last slaves in the United States are emancipated on June 19th, also called Juneteenth.  Mississippi creates black codes that limit the rights of freed blacks. They soon become common across the South.  The Freedmans Bureau is established.   1866 Congress passed the Fourteenth Amendment which ensured equal protection of the laws to all persons.  Most Southern states reject it.  The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was passed which granted full citizenship and civil rights to blacks.  The Ku Klux Klan was founded in Tennessee. It would extend throughout the South by 1868.  The First Transatlantic Cable was completed.   1867   The Military Reconstruction Act divided the former Confederacy into five military districts. Union generals policed these districts.  The Tenure of Office Act was passed requiring congressional approval before the president could remove appointees. This was to try and force Johnson to keep Radical Republican Edwin Stanton as Secretary of War. He went against the act when he removed Stanton from office in August.  The Grange  was established by farmers in the Midwest. It would quickly grow to over 800,000 members.  The US purchased Alaska from Russia in what was called Sewards Folly.   1868 President Johnson was impeached by the House but was acquitted by the Senate.  The Fourteenth Amendment was finally ratified by the states.Ulysses S. Grant became president.  The eight-hour workday became law for federal employees.   1869 The first transcontinental railroad was completed at Promontory Point, Utah.  The Knights of Labor was formed.  James Fisk and Jay Gould tried to corner the gold market leading to Black Friday.  Wyoming became the first state to grant womens suffrage.   1870 The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified giving black males the right to vote.  The last four  Southern states  that fought for the confederacy were readmitted to Congress. These were Virginia, Mississippi, Texas, and Georgia.  The first black Senator, Hiram E. Revels, assumed the seat of Jefferson Davis.  The Enforcement Act was passed. This was allowed for federal intervention against the Ku Klux Klan.  A California case, White v. Flood, set the precedent for schools to be segregated by race.   1871 The Indian Appropriations Act was passed. This made all Native Americans as wards of the state.Boss Tweed political machine was exposed by the New York Times.The greenback becomes legal tender.  US reached the Alabama settlement with England over the aid it gave to the Confederacy in building warships. England paid $15.5 million in damages.  The Great Chicago Fire occurred. 1872   Ulysses S. Grant was reelected as president.Democrats gradually reclaim control of Southern state governments in a process known as Redemption.  Yellowstone National Park was established. 1873 The Panic of 1873 occurred, caused by rampant railroad speculation.The Gilded Age was written by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner. 1874 The Womans Christian Temperance Union was founded. 1875 The Whiskey Ring scandal occurred during President Grants administration. A number of his associates were indicted.  The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was passed by Congress. It established penalties for those who denied citizens equal employment and the use of inns, theaters, and other places.   1876 The Lakota Sioux are ordered to reservations. In their resistance, the Sioux led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse defeat General Custer and his men at the Battle of Little Big Horn.  Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone.Samuel J. Tilden defeated Rutherford B. Hayes in the popular vote. However, the electoral vote is thrown into the House of Representatives.   1877   The Compromise of 1877 occurred giving Hayes the presidency.  Federal troops were removed from the Southern states.

The Contrast Between Shakespeare’s Macbeth and Roman...

Avneet Saini Mrs. Fera ENG3U0-D November 2nd, 2012 The Contrast between Shakespeare’s Macbeth and Roman Polanski’s Macbeth Shakespeare’s play Macbeth is a tragedy that plots the fall and death of once a great man, revealing how ambition can lead to downfall. Many directors and producers have tried to portray his play into modern films but Roman Polanski produced the most successful Macbeth film, but Roman Polanski’s movie Macbeth changes many details that the viewer is unable to fully experience the catharsis. Tragedy is built on the idea that the audience can sympathize with the tragic hero and therefore experience a strong emotional response at the ending. They both were based on the same plot however Polanski’s Macbeth is not a†¦show more content†¦This speech was the statement that represented that Malcolm has brought Scotland back on its feet and on the right track, which portrayed the end of Macbeth Era and his evil deeds. This was the ending of the play but however in the film Roman Polanski added a twist in the film that would bring the cycle of bloodshed back into S cotland when it illustrated that Donnalbain has returned from exile and he stumbled into the witches on the way. This foreshadowed that the deeds Macbeth did to become king will arise again but this time Donnalbain will be behind it all. In the film, the deaths and the violence are shown in a way with more information than what the play describes and it vaguely changes the plots with the showing of these deaths. There were many deaths in the films that were not in the play, but that caught many viewer’s eyes was an onset death that was not portrayed in the film. Roman Polanski depicted the murder of King Duncan outstandingly because the audience never had the feel of how King Duncan was actually killed since it was an offset scene in the play. Also because of the blood and gore, and how it seemed as if Macbeth was actually being pleased by stabbing the King all over his body. However, in the play King Duncan’s death was an offset because Shakespeare could not have done it because King James, who was the king at that time, would not have liked a king being killed on stage. Nevertheless, inShow MoreRelatedMacBeth Versions Comparison Essay547 Words   |  3 PagesMacBeth versions comparison essay There are many differences between interpretations of William Shakespeares MacBeth. This essay wall contrast Shakespeares original version and a movie version by Roman Polanski produced in 1970. Three major differences will be discussed. One difference between Shakespeares and Polanskis version is the absence of the scene in England in Polanskis version. In the Original MacBeth, MacDuff goes to England to convince Malcolm to return and fight MacBethRead More Macbeth - Conflict Essay1468 Words   |  6 Pagesor not conflict is central to the dramatic development of MACBETH, one must consider all the dramatic factors that contribute to the Shakespearean play. The gradual decline of the protagonist , the role portrayed by characters and the order in which the events occur, greatly influence the direction in which the development of the play takes place. After reading the text MACBETH, by Shakespeare and viewing the film version, directed by Roman Polanski, it is logical to see that ambition and the deceptiveRead MoreMacbeth - Conflict1586 Words   |  7 Pagesor not conflict is central to the dramatic development of MACBETH, one must consider all the dramatic factors that contribute to the Shakespearean play. The grad ual decline of the protagonist , the role portrayed by characters and the order in which the events occur, greatly influence the direction in which the development of the play takes place. After reading the text MACBETH, by Shakespeare and viewing the film version, directed by Roman Polanski, it is logical to see that ambition and the deceptiveRead MoreSleep and Rest In Macbeth Essay1787 Words   |  8 PagesIn William Shakespeare’s ‘Macbeth’ sleep is a very significant aspect of the play which is portrayed by many references to it and occurrences that result in sleep deprivation. To emphasize the importance of resting Shakespeare uses varied poetic language and sleep distortions. Sleep comes as a significant theme of the play when Macbeth, persuaded by Lady Macbeth kills King Duncan while he is asleep at their house. Consequently, Macbeth suffers from devastating nightmares and delusions which are theRead MorePlay Macbeth11985 Words   |  48 PagesAt the begi nning of the play, Macbeth is a respected general, a devoted husband, and a loyal subject of the king. The first of the witches prophecies bring out his ambitious nature, but he struggles with killing the king. By attacking his manhood, Lady Macbeth convinces him to committ the first of his evil deeds. Macbeths evil deed causes him to suffer from fear and guilt, which leads to even more evil crimes. Then Macbeth becomes paranoid, suffering from hallucinations and sleeplessness. He becomesRead MorePlay Macbeth11979 Words   |  48 PagesAt the beginning of the play, Macbeth is a respected general, a devoted husband, and a loyal subject of the king. The first of the witches prophecies bring out his ambitious nature, but he struggles with killing the king. By attacking his manhood, Lady Macbeth convinces him to committ the first of his evil deeds. Macbeths evil deed causes him to suffer from fear and guilt, which leads to even more evil crimes. Then Macbeth becomes paranoid, suffering from hallucinations and sleeplessness. He becomes

Contemporary Hotel Marketing for Demographic - myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theContemporary Hotel Marketing for Demographic Factors. Answer: Introduction The hospitality industry is one of the fastest growing industries of Australia. This industry includes hotels and resorts that offer luxurious stay to the tourists visiting Australia, along with catering to the needs of business travellers. This assignment highlights the macro-external factors that have a key role to play in affecting the hospitality industry of Australia. The various factors that constitute the macro-external factors include the demographic factors, political and legal factors, economic factors, social and cultural factors, technological factors, and demographics. The significance of each of these factors has been described in details thus shedding light upon the extent of significance that each of these factors have. External macro-environment Demographics The demographics is one of the most important factors that have a significant effect on the working of the hospitality industry. The demographics include the age of the people visiting Australia, along with shedding light upon the gender of the majority of the people affecting the hospitality industry. The demographics have a key role to play in the hospitality industry. This is because depending upon the age ,gender and nationality of the majority of the tourists visiting Australia, the hotels and resorts well equipped themselves to Cater to the needs of tourist (Mok Sparks Kadampully, 2013). For example if the majority of the tourists visiting Australia are from Asia, then the Asian culture and Asian food needs to be catered to the tourists by the hotels (Amelung Nicholls, 2014). However if the European tourist dominate, the requirements will change accordingly. Hence the demographics are an essential macro environmental factors that has a significant effect on the hotel and hosp itality industry of Australia. Moreover with the popularity of Australia as a tourist industry, a large cultural diversity among the tourists has been observed. This cultural diversity affects the hospitality industry to incorporate the same diversity in the services and the food they offer to the guests. Hospitality industry needs to equip them to understand the cultural diversity, so that out of ignorance they do not hurt the culture of any tourist visiting the hotels. Economic conditions The economic condition of any country is one of the major determining external factors that affect the hospitality and tourism industry positively or adversely. Economic stability in a country ensures prosperity that attracts more tourists. Strong economy along with high affordability among the people encourages tourism (Buhalis Crotts, 2013). However natural calamities such as drought or flood, or the break out of any disease provide an adverb situation for tourism and hospitality industry (Dwyer et al., 2013). Encouragement from the government and promotion of tourism in the country attracts more tourists (Wang, 2013). High availability of world class transportation facilities such as flight and ships helps tourists to visit Australia regularly (Randle Hoye, 2016). The steady growth of Australia is also one of the important factors that affect tourism industry positively. Competitions Competitions among the various hotels in Australia are common. In order to remain in competitive advantage most of the hotels will ensure that they provide the best services to the guests. Competitors are mainly of 4 types (Baum, 2016). These include the direct competitors the product competitors the service computers and the discretionary competitors. Direct competitors and service competitors how many in numbers since a lot of hotels and resorts cater to the tourists coming to Australia (McPhail et al., 2015). However in order to remain ahead in the competition the best services needs you provided to the tourists. Society and culture The society and culture also has a strong effect on the enhancement of tourism and hospitality industry. The quality of life needs to be maintained, along with emphasising on healthy living of the tourists. The culture of Australia is rich (de Grosbois, 2016). Hence, it attracts huge number of tourists to Australia. The hospitality industry needs to ensure that the rich culture of Australia is displayed to the tourists by the way their needs are catered. The healthy living and positive lifestyle of the tourists have to be ensured, in order to attract more tourists (Ruhanen, Mclennan Moyle (2015). A country lacking culture and positivity is not a tourist attractive place. Hence, cultural richness and diversity are essential. Political and legal factors The political and legal factors also have a key role to play in enhancing the tourism industry. Political stability in Australia, along with the initiatives taken up by the government, in order to ensure the promotion of Australian tourism is important for the hospitality industry (Ruhanen, Mclennan Moyle, 2013). Moreover, the new and improved Airport, along with approval for high-rise hotels at the beachfronts, attract more tourists, thus facilitating the tourism industry (Chon, 2013). Along with the political factors, the legal factors also have a key role to play. The monetary and fiscal policies taken up by Australia, along with social legislations and regulations ensure that the tourism industry is facilitated (Goodall Ashworth, 2013). The taxation policies as well as the policies of seeking trade licence is easy thus facilitating the business of the hotels. Technology With the enhancement in the technology, the hospitality industry of Australia needs to upgrade their technologies, such that they are able to ensure the success of their business with the help of technology. The hotels have been modified and equipped with workstations and high-speed internet facilities, such that the needs of the business travellers could be fulfilled. Moreover, with technology up-gradation, satellite tracking systems and sophisticated communication network have to be designed, in order to ensure achievement of competitive advantages (Jones, Hillier Comfort, 2016). Conclusion The macro-environment has a key influence on the hospitality industry of Australia. The influence of each of the factors affects this industry positively or adversely. The demographics have a major influence on the industry, in order to ensure that the industry is able to carter to the needs of the tourists of various demographics. The political stability and the transparency of the legal procedures ensure the success of the hospitality industry. Moreover, the rich culture and the social factors also facilitate the hotel industry of Australia. References Amelung, B., Nicholls, S. (2014). Implications of climate change for tourism in Australia.Tourism Management,41, 228-244. Baum, T. (Ed.). (2016).Human resource issues in international tourism. Elsevier. Buhalis, D., Crotts, J. (2013).Global alliances in tourism and hospitality management. Routledge. Chon, K. S. (2013).Tourism in Southeast Asia: A new direction. Routledge. de Grosbois, D. (2016). Corporate social responsibility reporting in the cruise tourism industry: A performance evaluation using a new institutional theory based model.Journal of Sustainable Tourism,24(2), 245-269. Dwyer, L., Forsyth, P., Spurr, R., Hoque, S. (2013). Economic impacts of a carbon tax on the Australian tourism industry.Journal of Travel Research,52(2), 143-155. Goodall, B., Ashworth, G. (Eds.). (2013).Marketing in the Tourism Industry (RLE Tourism): The Promotion of Destination Regions. Routledge. Jones, P., Hillier, D. Comfort, D. (2016). Sustainability in the hospitality industry: some personal reflections on corporate challenges and research agendas.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,28(1), 36-67. McPhail, R., Patiar, A., Herington, C., Creed, P., Davidson, M. (2015). Development and initial validation of a hospitality employees job satisfaction index: Evidence from Australia.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,27(8), 1814-1838. Mok, C., Sparks, B., Kadampully, J. (2013).Service quality management in hospitality, tourism, and leisure. Routledge. Randle, E. J., Hoye, R. (2016). Stakeholder perception of regulating commercial tourism in Victorian National Parks, Australia.Tourism Management,54, 138-149. Ruhanen, L. M., Mclennan, C. L. J., Moyle, B. D. (2013). Strategic issues in the Australian tourism industry: A 10-year analysis of national strategies and plans.Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research,18(3), 220-240. Ruhanen, L., Whitford, M., McLennan, C. L. (2015). Indigenous tourism in Australia: Time for a reality check.Tourism Management,48, 73-83. Wang, Y. F. (2013). Constructing career competency model of hospitality industry employees for career success.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,25(7), 994-1016.